LXX History

The Septuagint—commonly abbreviated LXX—is the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures and represents the oldest surviving complete Old Testament in any language. It holds immense historical and theological importance, particularly as it is the version of the Old Testament most often quoted by Jesus, the apostles, and the early church [discussed in Section 6]. The name Septuagint (Latin for "seventy") refers to the traditional account that seventy-two Jewish scholars translated the Torah from Hebrew into Greek, miraculously producing identical translations independently. This tradition is preserved in the ancient Letter of Aristeas, and later echoed by figures like Philo of Alexandria, Josephus, and early Christian writers.

🔹 Initial Translation: The Torah

The first stage of the Septuagint’s creation occurred in 3rd century BC Alexandria, Egypt, under the rule of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–246 BC). According to tradition, Ptolemy commissioned the translation of the Hebrew Torah (Genesis through Deuteronomy) so it could be housed in the famous Library of Alexandria. While the full accuracy of this account is debated, historical evidence supports the existence of a Greek Pentateuch circulating among Alexandrian Jews by this period.

🔹 Expansion Over Time

Following the translation of the Torah, other Hebrew Scriptures—including historical books (like Joshua and Kings), wisdom literature (such as Proverbs and Job), and the prophets—were translated into Greek over the course of the next two centuries, from the 2nd to 1st century BC. These later translations were done by various hands and sometimes show more interpretive variation than the Pentateuch. Books like Esther and Daniel in the Septuagint differ significantly from their later Masoretic counterparts, often including lengthy additions and rearrangements of content.

🔹 The Language of the Septuagint

The Septuagint was written in Koine Greek, the common language of the Hellenistic world. By this time, many Jews in the diaspora—especially those in Alexandria, Antioch, and Asia Minor—had lost familiarity with Hebrew. Koine Greek was not only the language of commerce and governance but also the lingua franca (common language) of the Jewish diaspora, making it a natural vehicle for Scripture. Notably, Koine is also the language of the New Testament, forming a direct linguistic bridge between the Old and New Testaments.

🔹 The Broader Canon: The Apocrypha

One of the defining features of the Septuagint is its inclusion of additional books not found in the later Hebrew Masoretic Text. These include:

Wisdom of Solomon
Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)
Tobit
Judith
Baruch
1–4 Maccabees
Additions to Daniel (including The Prayer of Azariah, The Song of the Three Young Men—offered by Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego in the fiery furnace—Susanna, and Bel and the Dragon)
Additions to Esther (notably include prayers, divine references, and acknowledgment of God—elements absent from the Hebrew version, making the Greek Esther more explicitly theological)
And others, depending on the manuscript tradition

These writings, often called the Apocrypha (hidden) or Deuterocanonical books (added later to the canon), were widely read, referenced, and publicly read as Scripture by early Christians. The early church received these texts as part of the inspired Old Testament—particularly in the Eastern Church—and they had a profound influence on early Christian theology, ethics, and liturgy.

The inclusion of these books distinguishes the Septuagint canon from both the later Jewish canon and the Protestant Old Testament, and remains a defining difference between Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant Bibles today. Their legacy and reception will be explored more fully in [Section 9].

📜 Section 2: The Masoretic Text

Where It Comes From and How It Differs

🔹 Overview

The Masoretic Text (MT) is the traditional Hebrew version of the Old Testament used in most modern Bibles. It represents a carefully preserved, but relatively late, textual tradition, formalized by Jewish scribes in the early medieval period. It is important to recognize that the MT does not represent the original Hebrew autographs, but rather reflects a standardized form of the Hebrew Scriptures based on specific manuscript traditions. The Masoretic Text and the Septuagint (LXX) are not based on the same Hebrew source texts, which explains many of the significant differences between them.

🔹 Origins and Development

The MT was standardized by Jewish scholars known as the Masoretes between the 6th and 10th centuries AD, working primarily in Tiberias, Babylon, and Jerusalem. The Masoretes were deeply committed to preserving the Hebrew Scriptures in both written and oral form. They developed a complex system of vowel points and pronunciation guides (the "niqqud") to ensure accurate transmission of the text.

While this tradition reflects a high level of scribal precision, it represents a form of the Hebrew Scriptures that is over 1,000 years later than the Hebrew source texts used in the translation of the Septuagint (3rd–1st century BC). In fact, the earliest complete LXX manuscripts, such as Codex Vaticanus and Codex Alexandrinus, predate the earliest complete MT manuscripts by many centuries.

🔹 Language and Features

The Masoretic Text is written in Biblical Hebrew, preserved through a meticulous tradition of scribal copying. The Masoretes included thousands of marginal notes (the "masora"), containing commentary on variant spellings, textual statistics, and other features designed to ensure faithful replication.

The MT became the authoritative text for Jewish communities from the Middle Ages onward, and it was later adopted by Protestant Reformers as the primary source for Old Testament translation, motivated by a desire to return to the "original Hebrew."

Modern Catholic translations also draw on the MT for many Old Testament books, although the Catholic canon retains the Deuterocanonical books that are present in the Septuagint but missing from the Masoretic tradition.

🔹 Manuscript Witnesses

The two most important early manuscripts of the MT are:

The Aleppo Codex (10th century AD – 930s)
The Leningrad Codex (1008 AD – 11th Century AD), the oldest complete manuscript of the Masoretic Text still in existence

By contrast, the Septuagint is preserved in manuscripts dating back much further:

Fragments of the LXX exist from the 2nd century BC
Major codices like Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus date to the 4th century AD

This means that the Septuagint tradition predates the complete Masoretic manuscript tradition by more than a millennium. In many cases, the Septuagint reflects earlier or alternative Hebrew texts no longer extant in surviving Jewish sources. While the MT represents a refined and uniform Hebrew tradition, the LXX provides valuable insight into textual variants and diverse early readings.

🔹 Differences from the Septuagint

There are many significant differences between the MT and the LXX, including:

Book order, verse arrangement, and specific word choices
The LXX frequently reflects older or alternative Hebrew readings that differ from the MT
The MT excludes the Deuterocanonical books, which are present in the Septuagint and were accepted by the early church
In some cases, passages included in modern accepted Old Testament canon are found in the LXX but are absent from the Masoretic Text, indicating the LXX preserves readings from more ancient or variant Hebrew sources now lost
Some passages within books accepted as canonical (such as Daniel and Esther) are found in the Septuagint but are omitted in the Masoretic Text, and thus excluded from most modern Bibles, even though they appear within c books in the LXX tradition

🔹 Role in Modern Bibles

In the Middle Ages the Masoretic Text became the official Hebrew Bible of Rabbinic Judaism, and during the Protestant Reformation, it was embraced by Reformers who sought to return to the "original Hebrew Scriptures."

As a result:

Protestant Bibles today are translated primarily from the Masoretic Text, despite its later origin.
Catholic and Orthodox Bibles, while sometimes using the MT for Hebrew books, retain the Septuagint-based canon, including the Deuterocanonical books.

The widespread use of the MT in modern Bibles has often obscured the fact that the Septuagint represents a much older witness to the Old Testament Scriptures, and was the version most often quoted by the New Testament writers.

📜 Section 3: Why the Septuagint Was Created

Translation for the Jewish World Before Christ

🔹 Purpose and Historical Need

The initial creation of the Septuagint was likely driven by the desire of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–246 BC) to include the Hebrew Law in the vast Library of Alexandria, one of the greatest intellectual centers of the ancient world. According to the Letter of Aristeas, this royal commission led to the translation of the Torah into Greek by 72 Jewish elders, forming the earliest portion of what would become the Septuagint (LXX).

Ptolemy II was the son of Ptolemy I Soter, one of Alexander the Great's generals and the founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. While the linguistic needs of Greek-speaking Jews later ensured the Septuagint’s widespread adoption, the original motivation behind the translation was largely literary and political, aligning with the broader Hellenistic goal of collecting and preserving world knowledge in Greek.

🔹 Traditional Account: Ptolemaic Commission

The most well-known origin story of the Septuagint comes from the Letter of Aristeas, written in the 2nd or 1st century BC. It recounts that Ptolemy II Philadelphus, ruler of Egypt, wished to include the Jewish Law in the Library of Alexandria. To achieve this, he summoned 72 Jewish elders from Jerusalem to translate the Torah into Koine Greek.

The narrative emphasizes that each elder worked independently, yet all produced identical translations, a phenomenon regarded as a miraculous sign of divine guidance. This story was preserved and affirmed by later writers such as Philo of Alexandria, Josephus, and several early Christian authors, who saw it as confirmation of the Septuagint’s divine inspiration.

🔹 Initial Translation: The Torah

The first portion of the Hebrew Scriptures to be translated into Greek was the Torah (Genesis through Deuteronomy), also known as the Pentateuch. This translation is believed to have occurred in the 3rd century BC.

Over the next two centuries (2nd–1st centuries BC), the rest of the Hebrew Bible was translated by various Jewish communities and individuals. These later books display a wider range of translation styles—some highly literal, others more interpretive or paraphrased. Together, they form the broader Septuagint collection.

🔹 Cultural and Religious Function

The Septuagint quickly became central to Jewish religious life in the Greek-speaking diaspora, especially in Alexandria, where many Jews no longer spoke Hebrew or Aramaic fluently.

It was used in synagogue readings, education, and worship, functioning as the authoritative Scriptures for countless Jews outside of Judea.

By the time of the New Testament, the LXX had become the Scriptures of choice for Greek-speaking Jews—and later, for Jesus, the apostles, and the earliest Christians (a topic explored more fully in later sections).

The Septuagint laid the foundation for the Christian Old Testament in Greek, profoundly shaping early Christian theology and biblical interpretation.

📜Section 4: The Septuagint in the Time of Jesus

The Bible He Heard and Read

🔹 Historical Context: A Multilingual World

Jesus lived in first-century Judea and Galilee, regions characterized by multilingualism. Three main languages were in active use:

Aramaic was the common spoken language among the Jewish people.
Hebrew remained important for religious texts and temple use.
Koine Greek was the lingua franca of the eastern Roman Empire, widely used in commerce, administration, and among diaspora Jews.

The Septuagint was already in widespread use by this time, especially in the Greek-speaking synagogues across the Mediterranean. Even in Judea, many Jews would have been familiar with the LXX, especially through public readings and teaching in the synagogue.

🔹 Jesus and the Scriptures

Jesus frequently quoted from the Scriptures throughout His ministry—in public teaching, private instruction, and debates with religious leaders. While He likely spoke Aramaic or Hebrew, the Gospel writers recorded His words in Greek, and often preserved wording consistent with the Septuagint.

This suggests that the Septuagint significantly shaped how Jesus' words were transmitted in the New Testament. In several instances, His quotations align more closely with the LXX than with the Hebrew Masoretic Text, indicating that the Gospel writers may have referenced the LXX when recording His use of Scripture.

🔹 Examples of Jesus Quoting the Septuagint

Below are two notable examples where Jesus' quotations, as preserved in the Gospels, match the LXX more closely than the Masoretic Text:

Isaiah 29:13 → Mark 7:6–7 (cf. Matthew 15:8–9)
“This people honors me with their lips, but their heart is far from me... teaching commandments and doctrines of men”
- Matches the LXX exactly
- Differs from the MT, which reads: "and their fear of me is a commandment taught by men."
Isaiah 61:1 → Luke 4:18 (Jesus in the synagogue) “He has sent me to proclaim liberty to the captives... recovery of sight to the blind.”
- Includes LXX the phrase "recovery of sight to the blind.”
- Not found in the MT, which instead reads: “opening of the prison to those who are bound”

🔹 Jesus’ Endorsement of the Scriptures

Jesus never criticized or rejected the Septuagint when it was used publicly or in synagogue settings. Instead, He quoted Scripture in key moments, including:

His reading in the synagogue at Nazareth (Luke 4)
His confrontation with Satan in the wilderness (Matthew 4)
His debates with the Pharisees and Sadducees

While we cannot say definitively whether Jesus Himself quoted directly from the Septuagint, the Gospel writers' use of it to record His words highlights its authoritative role in their theological framework and the early Christian community.

🔹 Summary Insight

Jesus ministered in a Jewish world where the Septuagint was widely read, taught, and accepted, especially among Greek-speaking Jews.

His quotations, as preserved in the Gospels, often follow the Septuagint text, indicating that it was already deeply embedded in the life and theology of God’s people.

The Septuagint was not merely a convenient translation; it was treated as authoritative Scripture, forming the Scriptural backdrop of the New Testament era.

📜 Section 5: The Apostles and the LXX

The Bible of the Early Church

🔹 The Apostles’ Reliance on the Septuagint

The apostles regularly quoted from the Old Testament in their writings, and the majority of these quotations follow the Septuagint rather than the Masoretic Text. The Greek wording in their letters reflects the text most familiar to their audiences in the Greco-Roman world. The Septuagint was considered authoritative and inspired in the early Christian community.

🔹 Key Apostolic Authors and LXX Usage

Paul: Of his approximately 98 scriptural quotations, 95 are drawn from the Septuagint.
Peter: His epistles include several quotations and allusions that align with the LXX.
The Book of Hebrews: Depends heavily on LXX readings for theological arguments (e.g., Heb_1:6–12, Heb_10:5–7).
The Gospels: Quotations in Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John frequently reflect the LXX text, especially from books like Isaiah, Psalms, and Deuteronomy.

🔹 Why the Septuagint Was Used

The early Christian mission rapidly expanded into Greek-speaking territories, making the LXX the natural choice for evangelism and teaching.
It provided messianic clarity in several passages that appear differently in the Hebrew text (e.g., Isa_7:14 – “virgin” vs. “young woman”).
The Septuagint fit the apostles' theological goals by supporting doctrines such as the incarnation, atonement, and priesthood of Christ.

🔹 Authority and Inspiration

The apostles never questioned the authority of the Septuagint, even when its readings differed from the Hebrew.
Early Christian writers, including the apostolic fathers, continued this pattern, citing the LXX as Scripture.
For the early church, the LXX was not a commentary—it was the Old Testament.

🔹 A Remarkable Case: Romans 3 and Psalm 13 (LXX)

One of the most striking examples of LXX usage in the New Testament occurs in Romans 3:10–18, where Paul presents a chain of Old Testament quotations to emphasize the universality of sin.

These quotations include excerpts from Psalms, Isaiah, and other writings, and they align closely with the Septuagint, not the Masoretic Text.

More remarkably, this exact chain appears nearly verbatim in Psalm 13 (LXX numbering). In some early Greek manuscripts, Psalm 13:1–3 contains the full set of verses Paul uses, indicating that he may have been quoting not a composite, but a known extended version of Psalm 13 as preserved in the LXX Psalter.

This passage is not present in the Hebrew Masoretic tradition, further showing how the LXX preserves readings and structures known to the apostles but lost in later Jewish manuscripts.

Psalm 13 (LXX)

13:1 To the end; a psalm of David. The fool said in his heart, “There is no God.” They have corrupted themselves and become abominable in their practices; There is no one doing goodness, not even one.

13:2 The Lord looked down from heaven upon the sons of men, To see if there is one who understands or seeks after God.

13:3 All turned aside; together they became worthless. There is no one doing goodness, not even one. Their throat is an open grave; With their tongues they deceived. The poison of asps is under their lips; Their mouth is full of cursing and bitterness. Their feet are swift to pour out blood;
Ruin and misery are in their paths, And the way of peace they have not known. There is no fear of God before their eyes.

🔹 Implications for the Early Church

The LXX shaped the doctrine, preaching, and teaching of the apostles.
It served as the textual foundation for New Testament theology, including Christological readings of the Old Testament.
Its widespread use among apostles and early Christians explains why most OT quotations in the NT align with the LXX.

The Septuagint was not merely a helpful translation—for the apostles and the early church, it was the Word of God.

📜 Section 6: Side-by-Side - LXX vs. Masoretic in the New Testament

Quote Comparisons, Data, and Patterns

🔹 Overview: Why This Matters

The New Testament authors quoted the Old Testament hundreds of times. But which version of the Old Testament did they quote from? This question has profound theological and textual implications. As demonstrated throughout this project, the majority of Old Testament quotations in the New Testament align not with the Hebrew Masoretic Text (MT) behind most modern Bibles, but with the Greek Septuagint (LXX).

These alignments are not incidental. They reflect the authoritative status the Septuagint held for Jesus, the apostles, and the early church. In many cases, these differences are theologically significant, especially in messianic prophecies and doctrinal formulations.

🔹 Quote Statistics and Patterns

There are approximately 300 direct quotations from the Old Testament in the New Testament.
About 65–70% of these quotations align more closely with the Septuagint than with the Masoretic Text.
Some scholars estimate that in the writings of Paul, up to 90% of Old Testament quotations come from the LXX.
Many indirect allusions and paraphrases also show strong dependence on the Greek text.

🔹 Case Study: Paul and Romans 3

One of the clearest demonstrations of LXX dependence occurs in Romans 3:10–18, where Paul presents a chain of Old Testament quotations to show that all people are under sin.

This passage includes excerpts from Psalms and Isaiah that align closely with the Septuagint, but are not found together in the Masoretic Text. Remarkably, the entire passage appears as a unified block in Psalm 13 (LXX). This suggests that Paul may have been quoting directly from a Greek Psalter that preserved this longer version of the Psalm.

Psalm 13:1–3 LXX (14:1-3 MT English Translations)

(LXX Literal Translation)

Psa 1:1 For the end. A psalm of David.
The fool said in his heart, “There is no God.”
They have become corrupt and became abominable in their practices;
there is no one doing goodness—not even one.

Psa 1:2 The Lord looked down from heaven upon the sons of men
to see if there is one who understands or seeks after God.

Psa 1:3 They all turned aside; together they became worthless.
There is no one doing goodness, not even one.
Their throat is an open grave;
with their tongues they deceived.
The venom of asps is under their lips.
Their mouth is full of cursing and bitterness.
Their feet are swift to pour out blood;
ruin and misery are in their paths,
and the way of peace they have not known.
There is no fear of God before their eyes.

Psalm 14:1–3 (MT/English)

(Taken from the ESV)

Psa 14:1 To the choirmaster. Of David. The fool says in his heart, “There is no God.” They are corrupt, they do abominable deeds; there is none who does good.

Psa 14:2 The LORD looks down from heaven on the children of man, to see if there are any who understand, who seek after God.

Psa 14:3 They have all turned aside; together they have become corrupt; there is none who does good, not even one.

Romans 3:10-18 (ESV)

Rom 3:10 as it is written: “None is righteous, no, not one;

Rom 3:11 no one understands; no one seeks for God.

Rom 3:12 All have turned aside; together they have become worthless; no one does good, not even one.”

Rom 3:13 “Their throat is an open grave; they use their tongues to deceive.” “The venom of asps is under their lips.”

Rom 3:14 “Their mouth is full of curses and bitterness.”

Rom 3:15 “Their feet are swift to shed blood;

Rom 3:16 in their paths are ruin and misery,

Rom 3:17 and the way of peace they have not known.”

Rom 3:18 “There is no fear of God before their eyes.”

This is not a minor textual variant. It shows that Paul and his audience accepted the Septuagint version as authoritative and inspired.

🔹 Notable Examples: LXX vs. Masoretic in the New Testament

Matthew 1:23 quotes Isaiah 7:14
Isaiah 7:14 LXX: “Virgin shall conceive.”
- The Septuagint (LXX) makes “virgin” explicit by using the Greek word παρθένος (parthenos), which specifically means “virgin” — a woman who has not had sexual relations.
- If the intent were to describe a young woman or maiden more generally (without implying virginity), the Greek word νεᾶνις (neanis) would have been used.

Isaiah 7:14 MT: "Young woman shall conceive." (Heb. ‘almah – עַלְמָה – young woman, not bəṯūlāh – בְּתוּלָה, which more precisely means virgin.)

Matthew 1:23 “Behold, the virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and they shall call his name Immanuel” (which means, God with us).

Note: Most English translations follow the LXX in Isaiah 7:14 (Greek Septuagint) rendering, which uses παρθένος (parthenos, meaning “virgin”), and this is the version quoted in Matthew 1:23.

Romans 3:10–18 quotes Psalm 13 (LXX see above)
- LXX: Extended version including full chain of quotes
- MT: Shorter version; many lines missing
- NT aligns with: LXX

Acts 15:17 quotes Amos 9:11–12
LXX (Amos 9:12):
“That the remnant of men may seek [the Lord], and all the nations upon whom my name is called.”
Note: “The Lord” is not explicitly stated in the Greek text but is the implied object of the verb “seek” (ἐκζητήσωσιν).

MT (Amos 9:12):
“That they may possess the remnant of Edom and all the nations who are called by my name.”
Note: Here, the verb is “possess” (יִירְשׁוּ / yirshu) and the object is “Edom” — creating a different focus.

NT (Acts 15:17):
“So that the rest of mankind may seek the Lord, even all the Gentiles who are called by my name.”
Note: James quotes the LXX directly in Acts 15:17, but makes explicit the implied object (“the Lord”) in order to clarify whom the remnant of humanity and the Gentiles are seeking.

Matthew 21:16 quotes Psalm 8:2
- LXX (Psalm 8:2 or Psalms 8:3, depending on numbering):
  "Out of the mouth of infants and nursing babies, you have prepared praise, because of your enemies, to silence enemy and avenger."
  Note: The Greek term "αἶνος" (ainos) translates to "praise."
- MT (Psalm 8:2):
  "Out of the mouth of babes and nursing infants, You have established strength because of Your adversaries, that You might silence the enemy and avenger."
  Note: The Hebrew term "עֹז" (oz) translates to "strength," indicating a focus on God's might established through the praise of the young.
- NT (Matthew 21:16 ESV):
  "Out of the mouth of babes and nursing infants, You have prepared praise."
  Note: Jesus quotes directly from the LXX, aligning with its rendering of "praise" rather than the MT's "strength." This choice emphasizes the act of praising as a means to demonstrate God's strength and silence adversaries.

In each of these cases, the New Testament follows the Septuagint, often choosing wording that is doctrinally and messianically richer than its Hebrew counterpart.

🔹 Theological and Doctrinal Implications

Messianic Prophecies: The LXX often presents messianic texts more clearly. For example, Isaiah 7:14 refers to a "virgin" (parthenos), which supports Matthew's claim of the virgin birth. Notably, this is a case where many modern Bible translations adopt the Septuagint reading over the Masoretic Text, even though they rely on the Masoretic Text for most of the rest of the Old Testament.
Quotes Entirely Absent from the MT: Romans 3:10–18 is perhaps the strongest example, but there are many cases where phrases or concepts appear in the LXX and are absent in the MT.

These differences affect how we interpret Christ's role, the meaning of the cross, and the nature of salvation. They are not marginal.

🔹 Why the LXX Differs

The Septuagint was translated from older Hebrew manuscripts, now lost.
The Masoretic Text reflects a later Hebrew tradition, finalized by the Masoretes between the 6th and 10th centuries AD.
The Dead Sea Scrolls demonstrate that multiple Hebrew textual traditions existed in the Second Temple period. Many of these support LXX readings.

This confirms that the LXX did not create new meanings; it preserved alternative readings that were considered valid in ancient Judaism and embraced by the early church.

🔹 Conclusion: The LXX as the Apostolic Old Testament

The New Testament authors used the Septuagint intentionally and consistently. It was their Scripture, the basis of their theology, and the voice of prophecy fulfilled in Christ.

The LXX is not merely a historical curiosity; it is the Old Testament of the apostles. To fully understand the message and theology of the New Testament, we should engage with the same Scriptures they read, preached, and believed.

📜 Section 7: The Septuagint After the Apostles

Still the Bible of the Church

🔹 Continued Use in the Post-Apostolic Church (2nd–4th Century AD)

After the apostles, the Septuagint remained the primary Old Testament of the early Christian church. The Apostolic Fathers (e.g., Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Polycarp) and Apologists (e.g., Justin Martyr, Irenaeus) quoted almost exclusively from the LXX.

Greek-speaking churches across the Roman Empire—in Alexandria, Antioch, Asia Minor, and Rome—read the LXX publicly and considered it Scripture. By the 2nd century AD, even non-Jewish converts came to know the Old Testament almost exclusively through the Greek Septuagint, not the Hebrew texts.

🔹 Tensions with Judaism and the Rise of Rabbinic Hebrew Texts

Early Christians, many of them Jewish, used the Septuagint to demonstrate that Jesus was the Messiah. Passages like Isaiah 7:14, Isaiah 53, and Psalm 22 appear more clearly messianic in the LXX, making it a powerful tool for early Christian preaching and evangelism.

As more Gentiles joined the church, they too embraced the Septuagint as their Old Testament, using it to argue that Jesus fulfilled the Scriptures. This widespread Christian use of the LXX created growing tension with Jewish communities, especially after the destruction of the Second Temple in AD 70.

To consolidate Jewish identity and theology, Rabbinic Judaism began moving away from the Septuagint, favoring a standardized Hebrew text. Notably:

Justin Martyr (2nd century AD) records dialogues with Jews defending the LXX as valid Scripture.
By the late 2nd century, Jewish scholars began distancing themselves from the Septuagint, in part because Christians were using it so effectively in evangelism.
This led to new Greek translations by Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion, which intentionally reduced messianic interpretations and aligned more closely with emerging Rabbinic tradition.

🔹 Constantine and the Imperial Commission

In the early 4th century AD, Emperor Constantine the Great decriminalized Christianity and sought to unify the empire under its influence. As part of this transformation, Constantine commissioned 50 complete Bibles for the churches in Constantinople and assigned Eusebius of Caesarea to oversee the project (AD 331).

These Bibles almost certainly used the Greek Septuagint for the Old Testament, affirming the LXX’s centrality in the newly institutionalized church. This was a major imperial endorsement of Christian Scripture.

🔹 Significance of the Constantine Commission

This commission marks a pivotal turning point in Christian history:

The Septuagint moved from persecuted Scripture to imperially supported text.
The church transitioned from scrolls to codices, adopting the book format still in use today.
Massive resources were invested: it is estimated that approximately 250 to 300 sheep or goat skins were required to produce the parchment (or vellum) needed for a single Bible.
Skilled scribes in scriptoria such as Caesarea followed standardized layouts and practices.

Though it is not sure if any of Constantine’s 50 commissioned Bibles have survived in full, Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (both 4th century Greek Bibles) may represent the legacy of this project.

🔹 The LXX as the Bible of the Orthodox Church

Even beyond the 4th century, the Greek Orthodox Church continued to use the Septuagint as its official Old Testament.

Church Fathers like Athanasius, Basil the Great, and John Chrysostom relied heavily on the LXX in their theological writings and sermons.
The liturgical calendar, lectionary readings, and monastic traditions of the Eastern Church were all rooted in the Septuagint text.

To this day, the LXX remains the canonical Old Testament in the Eastern Orthodox Church.

🔹 Summary Insight

The Septuagint was not a transitional text. It was the backbone of Christian Scripture from the apostles through the early centuries of the church.

The combination of apostolic precedent, imperial sponsorship, and continuous church usage made the LXX the default Old Testament for centuries.

Its influence shaped not only doctrine, but also the very structure of Christian worship, education, and spiritual life across the ancient world.

📜 Section 8: Why the Septuagint Fell Out of Favor

From Primary Scripture to Forgotten Text

🔹 Jewish Rejection of the Septuagint

Although the Septuagint was translated during the Second Temple period, beginning in the 3rd century BC, it came to be viewed by many Jews in the post-Temple period as a Christianized or corrupted version of the Scriptures.

Why? Because early Christians, many of whom were Jewish, used the LXX to argue that Jesus was the promised Messiah. Passages like Isaiah 7:14, Isaiah 53, and Psalm 22 appeared more explicitly messianic in the Greek than in the later Hebrew tradition. As a result, the Septuagint became increasingly controversial within Judaism.

By the 2nd century AD, in reaction to Christian evangelism, Jewish scholars began distancing themselves from the LXX. This shift led to the creation of new Greek translations (e.g., Aquila, Symmachus, Theodotion) that toned down messianic interpretations and aligned more closely with Rabbinic theology.

🔹 The Rise of Latin in the Western Church

As Christianity expanded into the Latin-speaking Western Roman Empire, the dominance of Greek declined. Early Latin translations of the Bible (e.g., the Vetus Latina) circulated widely in the West.

In the late 4th century, Jerome was commissioned to create a new Latin translation. Initially using the Septuagint, Jerome later shifted to the Hebrew texts, citing the need for greater fidelity to the original language.

This marked a key turning point: the Masoretic-based Hebrew tradition began to supplant the LXX in Western Christianity. Jerome’s translation, known as the Latin Vulgate, became the standard Bible of the Western Church for over a millennium.

🔹 The Vulgate and Theological Shifts

Jerome’s preference for the Hebrew text introduced a subtle but far-reaching change. Although the Vulgate retained the Deuterocanonical books (most of which existed only in Greek), its base text for much of the Old Testament aligned with Hebrew sources.

This shift reshaped doctrinal foundations in the West, with increasing emphasis on the Masoretic textual tradition.

Notably, Church Fathers such as Augustine disagreed with Jerome and defended the LXX’s authority. But over time, Jerome’s view prevailed, and the Septuagint receded from daily use in the Western Church.

🔹 The Reformation and Return to Hebrew

During the Protestant Reformation, Reformers emphasized returning to the "original languages" of Scripture. For the Old Testament, this meant turning to the Hebrew Masoretic Text.

The Reformers rejected the Deuterocanonical books, labeling them "Apocrypha," and removed them from the biblical canon. Since most of these writings only existed in the Septuagint, this decision further distanced Protestantism from the LXX tradition.

Thus, the Protestant Old Testament became firmly rooted in the Masoretic tradition, not the textual heritage used by the apostles and early church.

🔹 Survival in the Eastern Church

In contrast, the Eastern Orthodox Church never abandoned the Septuagint. Greek remained the language of Scripture, liturgy, and theology.

The LXX continued to be read in worship.
Monks and scholars preserved LXX manuscripts.
Orthodox theologians maintained continuity with early church traditions that relied on the Septuagint.

To this day, the Septuagint remains the canonical Old Testament of the Eastern Orthodox Church.

🔹 Modern Consequences

Most modern Bibles—especially those used in Protestant traditions—are based on the Masoretic Text, not the Septuagint. The LXX has often been treated as a secondary witness or academic curiosity.

Only recently have scholars and church leaders begun to re-examine the Septuagint as a vital source for:

Recovering early Hebrew readings now lost in the Masoretic Text,
Understanding the Scriptures of the apostles and early church, and
Gaining insight into how the New Testament interprets the Old.

🔹 Summary Insight

The Septuagint fell out of favor not because of its origin or accuracy, but because of historical, linguistic, and theological shifts:

Rejected by Rabbinic Judaism.
Overshadowed by Latin in the West.
Replaced by the Vulgate.
Rejected by Reformers along with the Deuterocanon.

And yet, the LXX remains the Bible of the early church, the Scriptures of the apostles, and a critical witness to the textual traditions of ancient Israel. Its rediscovery today offers a chance to re-engage with the very Scriptures that shaped the New Testament Church.

📜 Section 9: The Books Removed - Deuterocanon and the Early Church

The Other Scriptures in the LXX and Their Influence

🔹 Definition and Terminology

The books commonly known as the Deuterocanonical writings ("second canon") are those included in the Septuagint (LXX) but absent from the later Hebrew Masoretic Text. These writings are also referred to as the Apocrypha ("hidden books"), though this term often carries dismissive or secondary implications in Protestant traditions.

Far from being obscure, these books were widely read, quoted, and revered by early Christians and considered part of Scripture in both Eastern and Western churches before the Reformation.

🔹 Books Commonly Included in the LXX

The following books were part of the LXX canon and appear in major early biblical manuscripts like Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus:

Tobit
Judith
Wisdom of Solomon
Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)
Baruch (Jeremiah’s scribe)
Letter of Jeremiah
1–4 Maccabees
Prayer of Manasseh
Additions to Daniel (e.g., Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, Song of the Three Youths)
Additions to Esther (notably inserting references to God, prayer, and faith)

These books were interspersed throughout the Old Testament in early codices and not separated into a distinct category.

🔹 Use in the Early Church

These writings were frequently quoted or alluded to by early church fathers, including:

Clement of Rome
Justin Martyr
Irenaeus
Tertullian
Origen
Athanasius
Augustine

They were used in preaching, worship, catechesis, and theological debate. Church councils and early lectionaries show that they were publicly read as Scripture alongside the Law, Prophets, and Psalms.

🔹 Theological and Ethical Influence

These books helped shape Christian theology in key areas:

Wisdom, justice, and divine providence (e.g., Wisdom, Sirach)
Resurrection and the afterlife (e.g., 2 Maccabees)
Prayer, repentance, and almsgiving (e.g., Tobit, Prayer of Manasseh)
Martyrdom and faithful endurance (e.g., Maccabees)

Their influence is especially clear in the development of early monastic spirituality, liturgical readings, and even the New Testament epistles, which echo themes and phrases from these texts.

🔹 Gradual Marginalization

Although used broadly in the early church, these books were increasingly questioned in the West:

Jerome, while including them in the Latin Vulgate, labeled them "ecclesiastical books" (good for edification but not doctrine).
The Eastern Church retained full use and acceptance of the Deuterocanon.
In the West, doubts increased over time, especially during the late medieval period.

🔹 The Protestant Reformation and Rejection

The Reformation marked a decisive turn:

Reformers such as Martin Luther rejected the Deuterocanonical books as non-canonical, partly because they were absent from the Hebrew Masoretic Text.
These books were moved to a separate "Apocrypha" section, or excluded entirely from Protestant Bibles.
Their theological content (e.g., prayers for the dead in 2 Maccabees) was cited as evidence of doctrinal corruption.

From this point forward, most Protestant traditions removed these books from the canon and ceased to use them in public worship or doctrinal formulation.

🔹 Retention in Catholic and Orthodox Canons

The Council of Trent (1546) reaffirmed the Deuterocanonical books as fully canonical Scripture in the Roman Catholic Church.
The Eastern Orthodox Church never removed them and continues to include them in the Old Testament canon.
Some Anglican and Lutheran traditions still include them for instruction and reading, even if not for doctrine.

🔹 Summary Insight

The books found in the Septuagint but excluded from later Hebrew texts were Scripture to the early church. Their eventual removal was not due to their quality or spiritual value, but to later historical and theological shifts, especially:

The rise of the Masoretic Text,
The influence of Reformation theology, and
The desire for alignment with Rabbinic Judaism's canon.

Rediscovering these texts helps us better understand the Bible of the apostles and early Christians, as well as the spiritual worldview that shaped the New Testament church.

📜 Section 10: The Reformation and the Septuagint

Why the Reformers Rejected the LXX

🔹 Sola Scriptura and the Authority of the “Original Texts”

The Reformation emphasis on sola scriptura (Scripture alone) placed a premium on returning to the original languages of the Bible.
For the Reformers, this meant:
- Hebrew for the Old Testament (even though Jesus and the apostles used the LXX).
- Greek for the New Testament.
This preference caused Reformers to favor the Masoretic Text, which was viewed as the “authentic” Hebrew tradition despite being over 1,000 years later than the Hebrew source texts behind the LXX.

🔹 Jerome’s Legacy and the Vulgate

The Latin Vulgate, based partly on the Septuagint and partly on Hebrew, had become the official Bible of the Roman Catholic Church.
Reformers like Martin Luther were critical of the Vulgate, seeing it as corrupt or unreliable in many places.
Jerome’s reliance on the Hebrew text (against the Septuagint) was embraced by the Reformers, who saw this as a way to bypass both the LXX and Catholic tradition.

🔹 Suspicion Toward the Deuterocanon

Reformers viewed the Deuterocanonical books (present in the LXX but not in the Hebrew canon) as promoting:
- Doctrines they rejected, such as purgatory, prayers for the dead, or merit through works.
These books were:
- Demoted to “Apocrypha.”
- Removed from the Protestant canon entirely or placed in a separate section with disclaimers.
The presence of these books in the LXX contributed to Protestant mistrust of the Septuagint as a whole.

🔹 Reliance on Jewish Rabbinic Canon

Reformers turned to the Jewish canon of Scripture (as understood through the Masoretic Text) to establish the Protestant Old Testament.
Ironically, they trusted post-Christian Rabbinic Judaism’s canon decisions over the canon used by the apostles and early church.
This created a new standard of “authenticity” that aligned more with later Jewish theology than with the patristic tradition.

🔹 Break with Patristic and Liturgical Tradition

In rejecting the LXX and the Deuterocanon, the Reformers also broke with:
- Early church usage
- The theology of the church fathers
- Liturgical readings and prayer traditions

This departure reinforced a redefinition of authority, separating Scripture from the church’s interpretive tradition.

🔹 Legacy in Protestant Bible Translation

Most Protestant Bibles since the Reformation have:
- Omitted the Deuterocanonical books.
- Relied exclusively on the Masoretic Text for the Old Testament.
Some early English Bibles (e.g., the original King James Version) included the Apocrypha, but these were later removed in most editions.

🔹 Summary Insight

The Reformers’ rejection of the Septuagint was not based on its origin or accuracy, but on doctrinal concerns, linguistic preferences, and reaction against Roman Catholic tradition.
This resulted in a Bible that, while sincere in its pursuit of truth, often excluded the very Scriptures used by Jesus, the apostles, and the early church.
Understanding the Reformers’ reasons helps modern readers recognize both the strengths and the limitations of post-Reformation biblical tradition.

📜 Section 11: The Great Septuagint Manuscripts

Where the LXX Survives and What It Tells Us

🔹 Introduction: The Physical Legacy of the Septuagint

Though the original autographs of Scripture are lost to history, the Septuagint survives in several monumental manuscripts. These codices (books) stand as enduring witnesses to the Greek Old Testament used by Jesus, the apostles, and the early church. They are among the most important artifacts of biblical history, preserving the shape, scope, and content of the LXX in the centuries after Christ.

🔹 The Major Manuscripts

1. Codex Vaticanus (B) – 4th Century AD

Housed in the Vatican Library.
One of the oldest and most complete Greek Bibles.
Contains nearly the entire Septuagint and most of the New Testament.
Notable for its elegant uncial script and careful scribe work.
Many scholars believe it may be one of Constantine’s commissioned Bibles or a direct copy, given its early date, format, and quality.

2. Codex Sinaiticus (א) – 4th Century AD

Discovered at St. Catherine’s Monastery on the traditional Mount Sinai.
Currently housed across multiple institutions: the British Library, Leipzig University, the National Library of Russia, and the monastery itself.
Contains large portions of the Septuagint, the entire New Testament, and additional early Christian writings (e.g., the Epistle of Barnabas).
Also considered a likely candidate for one of the 50 Bibles commissioned by Constantine or a high-quality copy made shortly thereafter.

3. Codex Alexandrinus (A) – 5th Century AD

Preserved in the British Library in London.
Contains most of the Septuagint and New Testament, though with some gaps.
Reflects the LXX as it was used in Byzantine Christianity, offering slightly different readings than Vaticanus or Sinaiticus.

4. Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (C) – 5th Century AD

A palimpsest manuscript (written on reused animal skins) housed in the Bibliothèque nationale de France (Paris).
Originally contained a substantial portion of both the Old and New Testaments in Greek.
Later overwritten with works of , but modern techniques have recovered much of the biblical text.

🔹 Constantine’s Commission: Historical Significance

Around AD 331, Emperor Constantine the Great ordered 50 deluxe Greek Bibles for the churches of his new capital, Constantinople.
The historian Eusebius of Caesarea was tasked with overseeing their production.
These Bibles likely included:
- The Septuagint as the Old Testament.
- The New Testament canon as recognized by the church at that time.
- A codex format (book rather than scroll), which was becoming standard.
Producing a single Bible of this size and quality required massive resources:
- An estimated 250 to 300 sheep or goat skins were needed to make the parchment for just one copy.
- This expense placed such production entirely in the hands of emperors or the wealthiest patrons.
As a result, many scholars, including Wesley Huff, have suggested that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus may be direct products of Constantine’s commission or first-generation copies of those imperial texts.

🔹 The Move from Scroll to Codex

These manuscripts represent the early church’s shift from using scrolls to codices.
Unlike scrolls—which were written on one side only and stitched together in long rolls—codices were written on both sides of the parchment and bound together like modern books.
Scholars widely acknowledge this transition to the codex as a Christian innovation, likely driven by practicality and cost-effectiveness.
Codices allowed for:
- Easier navigation and reference.
- Public reading.
- Portability and compilation of larger collections (e.g., full Bible).
Constantine’s project helped cement the codex format as the norm for Christian Scripture.

🔹 What These Manuscripts Reveal

The breadth of the canon as used by early Christians, including the Deuterocanonical books.
Clear evidence that the Septuagint was the authoritative Old Testament.
Many readings align more closely with New Testament quotations than the later Masoretic Text.
A glimpse into textual variants no longer found in modern Hebrew manuscripts.
The theological and liturgical priorities of the early church, as reflected in layout, order, and inclusion.

🔹 Summary Insight

The great Septuagint codices—Vaticanus, Sinaiticus, Alexandrinus, and Ephraemi—are historical treasures. Whether or not they are among Constantine’s 50 Bibles, they clearly reflect the era’s effort to preserve Scripture with care, reverence, and beauty.

They confirm that the LXX was the Bible of the early church, embraced at the highest levels of both imperial and ecclesiastical life. These manuscripts remind us that while the original autographs may be lost, God has preserved His Word, and the Septuagint remains a vital witness to the text that shaped the New Testament, the apostles, and the faith of the early centuries.

📜 Section 12: Final Reflection – The Witness of the LXX and Masoretic Text

English Septuagint Versions Compared: Tools Behind Project LXX

Both the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint are invaluable witnesses to the Scriptures. While they differ in form, structure, and in some places even content, each has played a significant role in shaping the faith of God's people throughout history. God has worked powerfully through both traditions—guiding His church, revealing His truth, and building His kingdom.

When the apostle Paul wrote, “All Scripture is God-breathed and profitable…” (2Ti_3:16), he was referring to the Greek Scriptures he and the early church used—the Septuagint. This was the Bible that formed the foundation of New Testament preaching, teaching, and theology.

It is important to remember that the original autographs of the biblical books have not survived. They are lost to history. And yet, God has faithfully preserved His Word across languages, manuscripts, and centuries. The texts we possess today—though transmitted through human hands—are more than sufficient to convey the truth God intended for our generation.

🔹English Septuagint Versions Compared

The author of this website is personally familiar with the following major English translations of the Septuagint (LXX):
• Brenton’s Septuagint Translation (1844/1851)
• NETS – New English Translation of the Septuagint (2007)
• Lexham English Septuagint (LES), Second Edition (2020)
• Apostolic Bible Polyglot (ABP)

Brenton’s Septuagint Translation (1844/1851) is a fairly easy-to-read edition with 19th-century English style. Brenton’s version is available as a free Bible module for e-Sword Bible Software. To get the module, visit BibleSupport.com. It omits the Apocrypha, but a version including the Apocrypha is available in printed format.

The Apostolic Bible Polyglot (ABP) with Strong’s Numbering System is also available for free within e-Sword. It includes Strong’s dictionary entries for all Greek words in the LXX that also appear in the New Testament and are indexed in Strong’s Concordance—making it ideal for detailed Greek word studies. However, it does omit the Apocrypha. A printed version is also available for purchase.

NETS – New English Translation of the Septuagint (2007) is considered by the author to be useful for academic purposes, but is almost unreadable for the average person due to its dense, formal style and strict adherence to Greek structure. It is available as a free PDF at ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition and can also be purchased in print or as software for Accordance Bible Software.

Lexham English Septuagint (LES), Second Edition (2020) is the version the author recommends for casual readers. It balances accuracy with readability, using familiar biblical names and clear modern language. While designed for Logos Bible Software and requiring purchase there, print editions are also available.

The author relies heavily on all four versions for translation comparison as part of the ongoing Project LXX translation featured on this website.

🔹Detailed Comparison of Major English Septuagint Translations

📘 1. Brenton’s Septuagint Translation (1844/1851)

Full Title: The Septuagint Version of the Old Testament with an English Translation by Sir Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton
Features:
• Based on the Codex Vaticanus.
• 19th-century English (older style).
• Includes the Greek text in some editions.
• Frequently uses transliterated Greek forms of names (e.g., Esaias for Isaiah, Osee for Hosea, Iakob for Jacob).
• Often unfamiliar to modern readers due to Greek-based naming rather than Hebrew-derived.
• Still widely used for study due to its historical value.
• Status: Public domain.

📘 2. NETS – New English Translation of the Septuagint (2007)

Published by: Oxford University Press
Editors: Albert Pietersma and Benjamin G. Wright, among others
Features:
• Modern academic English, with a formal, sometimes dense style.
• Translated from the best critical edition (mainly Rahlfs).
• Aims to reflect the Greek text faithfully, including its structure, ambiguity, and literary character.
• Includes introductions, cross-references, and extensive scholarly notes.
• Uses standard English biblical names (e.g., Isaiah, Moses, Jacob) for consistency with modern Bibles, not Greek transliterations like Esaias.
• Prioritizes literal accuracy and fidelity to the Greek, even when this results in awkward or obscure English phrasing.
• Not designed for casual reading—best suited for serious academic or theological analysis.
• Best For: Academic study, scholarly use, and comparison between Greek and English structure.

📘 3. Orthodox Study Bible (OSB) (2008)

Publisher: Thomas Nelson
Features:
• Old Testament is based on the LXX, using Brenton’s translation with revisions.
• Includes commentary from the Eastern Orthodox perspective.
• New Testament is NKJV.
• Naming conventions follow the NKJV and traditional English Bibles (e.g., Isaiah, Moses, Abraham), not LXX transliterations.
• Does not reflect Greek spellings or pronunciations.
• Designed for devotional and liturgical use within the Orthodox tradition.
• Best For: Orthodox readers, devotional use.

📘 4. Lexham English Septuagint (LES) – First Edition (2012) / Second Edition (2020)

Publisher: Lexham Press (Faithlife)
Features:
• A fresh, modern translation of the LXX.
• Tends toward formal equivalence (word-for-word).
• Second edition includes more footnotes, corrections, and adopts modern naming conventions (e.g., Isaiah, Jacob, Moses) recognizable to readers of standard English Bibles.
• Designed for use in Bible software like Logos.
• First edition used more Greek-based name transliterations (e.g., Iakob, Esaias), while the second aligns more with familiar biblical forms.
• Translates idioms and expressions as they would have been understood in ancient Greek culture, even when that feels foreign today (e.g., liver as the seat of emotions rather than heart).
• Best For: Those seeking a readable, accurate translation that bridges modern English familiarity with Greek cultural context.

📘 5. Apostolic Bible Polyglot (ABP)

Features:
• Interlinear translation of the LXX with Strong’s numbers.
• Omits the Apocrypha (focuses on canonical books found in modern English bibles).
• English is extremely literal and tightly aligned to the Greek word order.
• Names are strictly transliterated from the Greek (e.g., Abraam, Isaak, Iesous, Petros, Iakob).
• Excellent for word studies, lexical analysis, and Greek learners.
• Includes New Testament interlinear as well.
• Not designed for readability—focused on precision and cross-referencing.
• Best For: Language study, interlinear users, and students of Greek.

🔹The LXX and the Masoretic Text: Both Are the Word of God

We can rest with full confidence: the Scriptures we hold are trustworthy. They are the Word of God, delivered through His providence and preserved for His people. Whether through the Septuagint or the Masoretic Text, the voice of God continues to speak clearly to those who listen.

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